Thematic flower beds were set up along the street to welcome the 2024 Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) Leaders' Meeting in Beijing, China, on September 2, 2024. (Photo by VCG/VCG via Getty Images)
China-Africa relations have deepened over the past two decades and have been marked by expanding economic cooperation, investment and infrastructure development. China is now Africa's largest trading partner, with cooperation focused on road and railway construction and energy projects.
As the 9th Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) kicks off in Beijing this week, a new environmental theme is shaping relations between the two countries: the global renewable energy race.
conversation We spoke to Lauren Johnston, a development economist specializing in China-Africa relations, for her thoughts on this development that positions both regions as key players in the global transition to green energy.
How is the competition over green energy affecting China-Africa relations?
The global climate crisis has created a push for renewable energy technologies such as solar and wind power that reduce reliance on polluting sources, and China has seen for several years an opportunity to lead this new industry.
Africa is home to many critical minerals needed to create renewable technologies, including copper, cobalt and lithium, the key raw materials in battery manufacturing.
The race for green energy has therefore led to a scramble for these minerals in Africa, led by China, the US and Europe.
China's mining presence in Africa is much smaller than that of Western countries, concentrated in five countries: Guinea, Zambia, South Africa, Zimbabwe and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
The Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Zimbabwe are among the crucibles of Africa's new green energy race. These countries are home to Africa's copper mining regions and some of the largest reserves of lithium, copper and cobalt.
The Democratic Republic of Congo is particularly important as it has large reserves of cobalt, high-grade copper and lithium. Cobalt is an extremely hard metal with a high melting point and magnetic properties, and is a key component in lithium batteries.
More than 70% of the world's cobalt is produced in the Democratic Republic of Congo, with 15% to 30% of that coming from artisanal (informal) small-scale mining.
China is the largest foreign investor and owns about 72% of the DRC's operating cobalt and copper mines, including the Tenke Hungurume mine, the world's fifth-largest copper mine and the world's second-largest cobalt mine.
China's CMOC Group is one of the world's leading cobalt mining companies, and the new Xinjianghu mine will enable it to produce up to 70,000 tonnes.
In 2019, the Democratic Republic of Congo and China accounted for about 70% of global cobalt production and 60% of rare earths.
Zimbabwe is another country in which China is investing as part of its green energy race and has Africa's largest reserves of lithium, a material essential for making electric vehicle batteries.
In 2023, Prospect Lithium Zimbabwe, a subsidiary of Chinese company Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt, opened a $300 million lithium processing plant with the capacity to process 4.5 million tonnes of hard-rock lithium per year into concentrate for export, out of global production of around 200 million tonnes per year.
There are several other notable developments on the continent.
China is investing in Morocco, the continent's first large-scale battery factory.
Chinese companies also have permission to develop the world's largest untapped deposit of high-grade iron ore in Guinea. Iron ore, which is used in steel production, plays a vital role in the renewable energy sector in many ways. For example, steel is used in the mounting structures for wind turbines and solar panels.
The Simandou iron ore development agreement involves several countries, including Chinese steel giant Chinalco, and production is expected to begin in early 2026.
As China increases its investments in these green minerals, what concerns do African countries have?
China's growing control over key renewable minerals poses several challenges for African mineral suppliers.
For African countries, this raises development concerns, as many would like to add value to their mineral resources rather than exporting raw materials to China and importing manufactured products.
China has been criticized for abandoning African interests by adding value in China instead of in Africa. Many people and industries on the African continent lack access to reliable and affordable energy, and local industries are eager to capture that market.
For example, according to the International Energy Agency, China controls more than 80% of the world's solar panel manufacturing operations. The concentration of production in China and competition have driven down the prices of solar panels worldwide.
China's solar power industry is keen to help alleviate Africa's energy poverty and provide sustainable energy to millions who lack access to it. For example, China is expected to promote its African Solar Belt initiative at this year's Forum on China-Africa Cooperation.
It's a scheme backed by the World Resources Institute that focuses on harnessing solar energy to eliminate energy poverty in Africa, as well as powering schools and health facilities with solar energy.
Some countries, such as South Africa, have retaliated by imposing tariffs on solar imports to protect their domestic industries.
There are also concerns that the race to renewable energy and the approach of Chinese mining companies in Africa is worsening working conditions for workers, with mining expansion in some countries leading to forced evictions and human rights violations.
What can African countries do to take advantage of China's rush for minerals?
There are several steps they can take.
First, we can pay more attention to basic labor standards and human rights.
Second, African companies should seek to learn from their Chinese partners, just as China has in the past learned from Japanese, Taiwanese, Singaporean and Western companies, to better understand the industrial knowledge, skills and capabilities needed on the continent.
Third, learn from how other emerging markets manage their relationships with China. For example, Indonesia has seized control of the global nickel market with China's help. Indonesia banned nickel exports in 2014 and sought to build a domestic industry for processing and manufacturing, a plan backed by Chinese investment.
Finally, what I call the “China Hunan Model for Africa” focuses on agriculture, mining, transport, construction, and human resource development, including technical and vocational training.
The more African countries can take advantage of training programs in other countries, the better prepared African youth will be to drive Africa’s industrial growth and economic development.
Lauren Johnston is an Associate Professor in the Centre for China Studies, University of Sydney.
This article was originally published on The Conversation.